The Jataka Tales
(Stories of
the Buddha's Former Births)
Jataka (Buddhist Birth Stories - Jataka Tales), the story of the
previous birth of Buddha is the oldest, most complete, and most important
collection of folklore which contains a record of the everyday life, and
everyday thoughts of the people. (The Commentarial Introduction entitled Nidana
Katha - The Story of the linage, Translated from Pali text by Prof. V.
Fausboll).
The Jatakas so constituted were carried to Ceylon in the Pali
language, when Buddhism was first introduced into that island (a date that is
not quite certain, but may be taken provisionally as about 250 B.C.); and the
whole tales were translated into the Singhalese language. Mahinda, the son of
Asoka (in some text he is called on as the brother of Asoka), is believed to
have collected 550 Jataka stories in Pali (the twenty-two Nipitaks) which were
composed by the time of the council of Patna (held in about 250 BC). A Jataka
Book is also found in the Anguttara Nikdya and in the Saddharma
Pundarika.
The memoirs of Fah-hian (Faxian 399-414 AD, the famous Chinese
traveler) who visited Abhayagiri in Sri Lanka (412 AD) and recorded 500
representations of Bodhisatta in successive births.
The Jataka Atthavannand (547 tales) belong to the third or
fourth century BC is retold into its present form in Ceylon in the fifth
century AD in the Pali text is edited by Prof. Fausboll of Copenhagen in
1877-96. This Pali Text is the oldest collection of the Jataka Tales has
been translated into English language by Edward Cowell (Cambridge
1895-1907).
The 547 Jatakas do not include the Mahagovinda Jataka, which is
mentioned in several early texts such as Nidana-katha and the Jatakakatha.
Similarly some stories are repeated with the same name or with another, thus,
the number of Jataka stories could also be more or a little less.
In all Jatakas from India, Sri Lanka,Tibet, China, Japan,
Vietnam, Indonesia, the story of the rescue of five hundred merchants from the
captive of Rakshasi by White Flying Horse, as the divine Lord Avalokiteswara,
is mentioned and the story ends with the only member, the leader able to get
back home safely leaving behind all other members under the captive of the
Rakshasi but nothing is mentioned about the Leader of the Legandary Caravan.
The story of the flying white horse is illustrated on the
bas-reliefs of the temple of Boro-Boedoer in Java (Leemans, Borro-Boudour, page
389, Leide, 1874) and on one side of a pillar in a Buddhist railing at Mathura,
is a flying horse with people clinging to it (Anderson, Catalogue of the Indian
Museum, page 189) from The Goblin City (Valahassa Jataka by Francis &
Thomas page 189). The story of the horse Balaha was immortalized in stone at
the Angkor monument of Neak Pean during the 12th century CE. (See Khmer
Mythology by Vittorio Roveda, p. 65)
One painting from Ajanta cave shows the pastimes of Prince
Simhala’s journey to Sri Lanka. He is shipwrecked along with his men on an
island on which ogresses appear as beautiful women, but who eat their victims.
The prince escapes on a flying horse, then later returns to the island and
conquers it and established Buddhism. (Behl, Benoy K: The Ajanta Caves).
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited India in the seventh century A. D. and
stayed here for fifteen years (629-645 AD), did not mention about Ajanta cave.
In 1819 British officers of the Madras Army made a discovery of this
magnificent site. They named it Ajanta after the name of the nearest village.
After a gap of twenty-five years, James Fergusson presented a paper at the
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1843, highlighting its
importance in term of Buddhism. This is the first scholarly study of the site
which drew the global attention. (Jamkhedkar, Ajanta: Monumental Legacy)
The Valahassa Jataka Tales
(Jataka Story: the Flying White Horse)
The Pali Jatakas, Divyavadana (heavenly stories) and the
sixteenth-century Sanskrit text Gunakdrandavyiha narrates the story of
Avalokitesvara as The Flying White Horse to help rescue the five hundred
merchants from the captivity of the Raksasi the Valahassa Jataka. The horse is
represented as an incarnation of the Avalokiteswora in
the Karandavyuha Sutra. The flying white horse is called Balaha in Jataka, the
stories of Buddha’s previous life. Simhsarthabahu is mentioned as one of the
previous lives of Buddha in the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha. In one the
Jataka Stories the name of the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as
Simhala, who was the only member to get back to the other shore. (The Jataka:
Stories of the Buddha's Former Births -The Goblin City page 164/165, edited by
E. B. Cowell, vol. 1 - 3. published in 1895-1907).
The Aśvarāja story relates the adventures of a caravan of
merchants shipwrecked on an island of demo nesses and rescued by a flying
horse, the aśvarāja, the ‘king of horses’. The Simhala story continues this
narrative to include the chief merchant, Simhala, being followed home by demons,
who tries to get him back before seducing and eating the king. Simhala is
crowned king and invades the island.
“The Valahassa Jataka” - Some of the different sources related
to the legendary story of the Avalokiteswora help rescue the group of five
hundred merchants from the Cannibalistic demons (man eating Rakshasis - the
she-goblins).
1) Valahassa Jataka in the Japanese
Literature
The Valahassa Jataka, as it is known in
Pali, was transmitted across Asia from India to Japan. A Japanese scroll
painting belonging to the 13th century illustrating the Valahassa Jataka is in
the collection of The Metropolitan Mueseum of Art, the tale is known as
Kannon-kyo (Kannon Sutra) in Japanese literature. In the tale the name of the
island is mentioned as Ceylon and city of Cannibalistic demons. The name of the
country of the five hundred merchant and the name of the leader are not
mentioned. In this tale the five hundred merchant are called on as the disciples
of Sakyamuni and the white flying horse as Bodhisattva. (The Flying White
Horse: Transmission of the Valāhassa Jātaka Imagery from India to Japan by
Julia Meech-Pekarik, Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers Volume 43 n. 1-2
1981, page 111- 128)
2) “The Valahassa Jataka” –
Indonesian version
Once upon a time, there was on the island of Lanka a goblin town
called Sirisavatthu, the home of she-goblins. We find the story of a group of
five hundred shipwrecked traders being rescued by five hundred she-goblins
disguised as pretty nice looking young ladies. The chief of the traders got
noticed the ladies as man eater goblins so he did request all member to flee
from the city (Ceylon). Two hundred fifty members followed the chief and they
were being helped by the white flying horse to cross the ocean. This is how the
Jataka story ends with the rescue help made to the group of merchants by the
flying white horse Balaha as one of the Buddha’s previous life. The same story
is repeated by E J Thomas in his book Jataka Tales (No. 196, The Goblin City
page 164-166 published by Cambridge University Press in 1916 and in The
Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha, Valahassa Jataka-196 by
C.B. Varma)
3) The Valahassa Jataka -
Tibetan version
In the history of Tibet called
Rgyal-rabs-gsal-vai-me-lon (The mirror illustrating the lineage of the kings)
Valahassa Jataka is mentioned in the sixth chapter. This was composed in the
early 17th century with the narrative description of the animistic life in Tibet
from an ape and a rakshasi and the description of the linage of the ruling king
ending Sronbtsan-sgam-po and the further history of the country to the time of
the writer. (A Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel-pp.503 -511; published
in 1888). Singhala is mentioned as the name of the island and the group of five
hundred merchants from India were being rescued from the Rakshasis by Lord
Avalokitecvara in the form of flying horse Balaha.
4) “Valahassa Jatakaya”
(the birth story of the Flying Horse) from Pali (Ceylon)
At Kelanimulla ferry, in 1952 a large, very well made dugout
boat was found (now in the Colombo Museum) that has been radio carbon dated to
2300BP ± 100, which is 380 – 480 BC: which makes it very close to the time of
Vijaya’s arrival (on the date of the Buddha’s paribbana on 543 BC). At this
time the sea-levels had not settled down to today’s level: it was yet
fluctuating, as we saw in Part 2. From the location it was found (Kelaniya) and
the skill of the maker, one can say that Kalyani was occupied by a
technologically advanced people. At Kelaniya, archaeological excavations have
brought to light pottery named “black and red ware” which can be dated
to.
This country has been known both for its copper deposits
(perhaps that is the origin of “Tambapanni”) and iron: in fact it has been said
that we did not have a copper or bronze age, but that we went straight from the
Stone Age to the Iron Age. Hence the reference to an “iron city” is intriguing.
In fact, the slag heaps found in uncountable numbers all over the country is
proof of a long-established industry which lasted into the 19th century, if not
later
It is fascinating to try one’s hands at this type of detective
work. But the purpose of this story is to find out who, were our first settlers,
how did they come, and who did they meet here. The stories are there, but they
are only stories. But scientific data is also there – and that data is probably
more reliable. All that I can safely say, is that the settlers who came by sea
along the western Indian coast were merchants: that they knew of our gems and
therefore called this country “Ratnadweepa”; and they met an advanced people
who knew how to mine and work in iron and copper, had the means of accessing
the interior of the country by boat, lived in ‘cities’ and traded with Indian
merchants. The Reality is therefore a long way from the fantasy land of the
legends.
“Let it be noted that in Sanskrit ‘sinhala’ has the meaning of
‘bark’, ‘Cassia bark. (‘cinnamomum cassia’).
Now, this is a plant found in southern China and Indo China. Its
bark is often used as a substitute for ‘cinnamomum verum’ (also called
‘cinnamomum zeylanica’) which is native to Sri Lanka.
Could it have been possible that Cinnamon – in addition to Gems,
Copper and Iron – was another thing that brought the Indian merchants here:
just as it brought the Europeans here two thousand years later?
5) A Jataka-Tale (Dukanipata: No. 196)
- Translated from
the Pali Literature
In the Valáhassa Játaka (No.196) the island
Tambannidípa and Sirísavatthu is mentioned as a Yakkha city peopled by
Yakkhinís who used to eat human flesh. Avalokiteswara, the divine lord is
believed to get rescue the group of five hundred merchant in the form of a
white flying horse. (The Jataka, Vol. II: Book II. translated from Pali. by
W.H.D. Rouse, 1895, No. 196 Valahassa Jataka Page- 90-92). Same story is
mentioned in Jataka: The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha
by C.B. Varma and A Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel (The Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland pp. 503--511)
6) Goblin City (The Flying White Horse)
In the Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's
Former Births, Ceylon is mentioned as the Goblin City and the leader of the
group of merchant is mentioned as Simhala who was the only member able to get
back to the other shore (The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births
edited by E. B. Cowell, volumes 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907 under the
title - THE Goblin City page 164/166)
7) Jataka Story from Ajanta Cave
Cave 17 has the largest number of paintings and murals than any
of the other caves. The mural paintings in Cave no. 17 of Ajanta Cave mention
the story of Bhalaha horse as a form of Avalokiteswara helping the group of
merchants from the Rakshisis. Among the finest are a vast panel depicting
Simhala’s shipwreck and encounter with a man-eating ogress (“Simhala Avadana”).
(The Cave Temples of India by James Fergusson and James Burgess 1895 and Ajanta
and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India Pushpesh Pant). The Ajanta
caves are dated from the beginning of the Christian era, or earlier to the
seventh century.
8) Hiouen Tsang’s version of
Simhala Avadana
It relates a story of the colonization of
this country - which is called “Ratnadweepa”, as it is in Hiouen Tsang’s versin
- by “Sinhala”, the son of Simha, a Merchant Prince who comes with 500
merchants in search of gems. He comes here, and meets a group of beautiful
women who live in an iron city called Sirisavatthu. They are, in fact,
cannibalistic Yakkhinis who can change their form, and they prey on shipwrecked
sailors and merchants. Sinhala’s ship is wrecked and he is saved by the
Yakkhinis who present themselves as the widows of other merchants who have
sailed on trading missions many years ago and are “presumed dead”. Simhala
believes the story and ‘marries’ the chief Yakkhini, but finds out who they are
and manages to escape with two hundred and fifty of his men who believe him,
with the help of a magical flying horse. His ‘wife’ follows him to his kingdom
and presents herself, as the woman wronged by his son, to Simha’s father. He
believes her and gives her shelter. For his pains, she devours him and his
whole household that night and returns to Ratnadweepa, where she kills and eats
the 250 men who had not heeded Simha’s call. Simhala succeeds his father as
king and invades Ratnadweepa by sea, bringing an army complete with war
elephants, by ship.
9) Simhalasarthabahu Avadana
Professor Todd Lewis of the college of Holy
Cross in Massachusetts, USA also published a paper on the localization of
Simhalasartha bahu Avadana did mention Simhasarthabahu as the leader of the
five hundred merchants in Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of
Simhalasārthabāhu Avadāna. (Chicago Journal- History of Religion volume 33
no.2, November 1993 page 135-160)
In Simhala Avadana it is mentioned about the birth of a son
named Simhala to a wealthy merchant Simhaka, during the period of king
Simhakesari from Simhakalpa. Simhala was selected as the leader of the group of
five hundred merchants who were on a sea-voyage. The abode of rakshas is
mentioned as Tamradvipa and Simhala was able to escape from the island on a
magic white horse leving behind all other members under the captive of the
Rakshasis.
In Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals in
a Newar Merchant Community (Columbia University: Ph.D. Dissertation, 1984),
Todd Lewis mentioned the name of the leader of the group of the merchant
leading to Lhasa as Simhala Sartha Bahu, son of the Merchant Simhalasartha Baha
from the town of Simhakalpa in Jambudvipa.
Professor Todd Lewis in his article published in the Journal of
Religion mention about a stupa in Lhasa known as Simsharthabahu Chorten and a
shrine in Jokhang dedicated to his wife' that newar traders honour as the form
of Jatika Ajima (Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasarthabahu
Avadan - source History of Religions, Vol.33 No. 2, page 150, published by the
University of Chicago Press 1993).
The adventure of the Merchant Simhala is also mentioned by
Professor Siegfried Lienhard with a description of a long scroll Painting 11.44
meter long and 0.55 meter wide with 80 frames each with the legend / story of
Simshartha Bahu (Text in Nepali Script & the language Newari) from the
collection of Museum of Indian Art, Berlin. Professor Siegfried Lienhard also
did mention about this Scroll painting in his paper “A Nepalese painted Scroll
Illustrating the Simhalavadan” (Nepalica 4 Sankt 49-53 Editors Prof. N.
Gulschow & A. Micheals - Sankt. Augustine Wissen-schaflaverlage VGH, p
51-53). Published in the Heritage of Kathmandu Valley, - proceedings of an
International. Conference in Lubec June 1985).
Simhala (Simhala Sartha Baha) was the name of the legendary
founder and first king of the island. (Buddhism in Tibet by Schlagintweit Emil
Leipzig, London 1863). The Sanskrit version of the Simhala story is mentioned
in the Gunakdrandavyuh as found in Y.Iwamoto, Bukkyo Setsuwa Kenkyu Josetsu
(Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967 pp. 247-94, A.K. Ramanujan, "Who Needs Folklore? The
Relevance of Oral Traditions to South Asian Studies, “South Asia Occasional
Papers (University of Hawaii Vol.1,1990).
The Legendary Story of the Lhasa
Caravan
A copy of wall hanging (Poubha, Wilampau, Thangka painting,
Scroll painting) narrating the story of the legendary caravan to Lhasa is being
displayed in the main courtyard of Bhagwan Bahal during the festival of the
holy month Gunlaa, the ninth months according to the Nepali Lunar Calendar
narrates the legendary story of the Lhasa Voyage, being leaded by Simhala
Sartha Baha. Simha Sartha Baha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal
and the entire daily rituals and activities during the festival are being
controlled by the Pradhan family from Thamel, who believe themselves as the
descendents of Simhala Sartha Baha.
According to the legend (a non-historical or unverified story),
a group of five hundred young businessmen left for a caravan to Lhasa. The
group did select Simhala, a merchant with rich knowledge, as their leader.
Being selected as the leader of the group of merchant he got the new name
Simhala Sarthabaha. (Sarthabaha meaning the leader of the group of merchant)
While crossing the River Bhramputra, they encountered an accident and were
being rescued by five hundred young and exceptionally beautiful ladies. All
members of the caravan were busy doing business and enjoying with the young
ladies as their wife, so they did not thought of returning back home.
Simhsarthabahu used to worship the family God Avalokiteshvara (Karunamaya)
daily. One day Simha Sartha Baha was given the divine sight of Lord Avalokiteshvara(Karunamaya)
while in meditation and worship. In the dream Lord Avalokiteshvara told him
that they are being under the captive of the she-devils (the man eater) and
told him to leave the city as soon as possible as it is a bewitched island. He
was instructed to go to the northern side of the city to check a big compound
surrounded by tall walls like a well, where they used to throw the human skeletons
after eating the flesh. Avalokiteshvara also did promise to help them cross the
river as a flying white horse. He went there and was able to climb a tree, and
saw lots of human skeletons behind the tall wall, where they were forbidden to
visit. He got convinced himself about the dream after visiting the northern
side of the city. He made the plan to get an escape from the evil eyes of the
damsels whom they mistakenly thought of their beloved wives. He was able to get
convinced his friends about the instruction of the divine Lord and made a plan
to live the bewitched land.
They left their home in the middle of the night when their wives
were fast asleep and came close to the River. Simhal Sarthabahu did worship the
divine Lord and a flying white horse appeared. The horse instructed all them to
get a ride and warned them not to look behind while crossing the river and
enchant the holy Triratna Mantra. While they were crossing the river, all
ladies woke up and could not find the young merchants sleeping next to them.
They started flying over the river and laminating and requesting them to return
back home. Hearing the kind hearted voice of their wife (the she-devil) all
members except Simhala Sarthabaha looked behind and were taken back to the
other side of the river. Simhala Sarthabaha was the only person who did not
look behind, so was able to get back home leaving behind all his friends under
the captive of the she-devils.
Simhala Sartha Baha was the only person who did not look behind,
and did not forget to enchant the Mantra of Triratna, so was able to get back
home leaving behind all his friends under the captive of the wretched women.
The chief devil disguised as a young and exceptionally beautiful lady followed
Simhsarthabahu and came to the court with a baby on her lap claiming herself to
be the wife of Simhsarthabahu. Simhsarthabahu did try to convince the king
about the she-devil and denied to accept them as his wife and son. The king
then kept her in the palace as he was attracted with the exceptional beauty of
the lady. In the middle of the night she called all her companions and started
killing the members of the Royal family and the staff. Next day the palace door
did not open so Simhsarthabahu entered the palace climbing through a ladder. He
was no more able to find anybody but the human skeleton scattered all over the
palace court yard. As all Royal family members along with the staff were killed
and eaten by the she devils, He found the human skeletons scattered around the
palace and saw the she devils sleeping around the courtyard. With the Devin
sword he is believed to have killed all the Dankinis except his wife who did
beg pardon for her life.
Simhala Sartha Baha was nominated as the leader of the community
as all members of the Royal family were killed by the she-devil. This is how he
got a new name Garud literally meaning army chief and later on was able to become
the king and called Garudjuju. (Pradhan, Bhuban Lal, 2047, Kathmandu Upatyeka
ka Chirka Mirka Page 72). Simhal Sarth Bahu donated land and is believed to
have established Thambahi in his home town; with the wealth he earned from
Lhasa (the traders usually bring Gold from Tibet). He was able to win victory
over the bewitched island and was also able to introduce Buddhism there. Later
on with his spiritual power and intellectual knowledge, he gained popularity as
a form of Divine God – Dipankara Garud Bhagwan. His wife also is honored as a
divine god Ajima, the proctector Goddess (Jatika Ajima). After being pardoned
from her life she is being ordered to make a solemn vow to protect the entire
community and in return she also made a proposal to protect the community least
there be no opening in the roof top of the buildings. Even today the Pradhans
from the locality do not have open rooftops in their houses. She was then asked
which portion of the rice she wants to have- the first, middle or the last. She
spoke to have the first one thinking herself as senior so this is how she got
the sticky water (Jati). This is how even today the sticky water (Jati) is
being poured to the image of Jatikwa Ajima, before reaching the rice bowl to
Garud Bhagwan. The main image of Bhagwan Bahal which is known as Garujuju or
Garud Bhagwan, is believed to be the image of Simhalsarthbahu. Pradhan from
Thambahi do not visit Lhasa because they believe themselves as the descendant
of Simhal sarthbahu, they are scared of being attracted by the she devils as revenge.
Simhala Avadana
The Story of the Horse-King and the Merchant Simhala in Buddhist Texts by Naomi Appleton.
Once upon a time a wealthy merchant named Simhaka used to live
in the capital city of Simhakalpa ruled by king Simha Kesari. When his wife
gave birth to a beautiful son, he named him Simhala. After finishing his
education, he asked his father for permission to go away on a sea-voyage.
Simhaka was afraid of losing his beloved son and was not willing to send him
for the voyage. Simhala left Simhakalpa in the company of five hundred
merchants. They all took with them abundant merchandise. After visiting many
places they able to sale all their goods and made huge profits. On their way
back they reached a place called Tamradvipa. This place was the abode of
rakshasis. On seeing the merchants, all the rakshasis took beautiful female
forms and entertained the merchants. Each rakshasi took one of his friends
home, fed him, made love to him and they lived as husband and wife. When all
his friends were thus drugged to sleep, the rakshasis devoured them. The
rakshasi entrusted with the task of devouring Simhala fled when he took out his
sword. Simhala then escaped from the island on a magic white horse.
From Tamradvipa, Simhala came to Jambudvipa. The rakshasi in the
form of a very beautiful young lady followed him. She met a merchant from
Madhya Desa. She promptly fell at his feet and said I am the daughter of the
king of Tamradvipa and was married to Simhala. While crossing the ocean the
ship encountered an accident. He left me as he thought me to be inauspicious.
The merchant was impressed by her story and promised to help her. He blamed
Simhala for not accepting the innocent girl. Simhala then told him that she was
a rakshasi. From Jambudvipa Simhala returned to Simhakalpa. The rakshasi
followed him there also. She came to the house of Simhala with a very handsome
child, greatly resembling Simhala. She told Simhala's father the same old
story. When Simhala came back home, his parents requested him to forgive his
wife. Simhala then revealed the true nature of the innocent young girl. After
being denied by Simhala, the rakshasi went to the palace claming her as the
wife of Simhala and the child as his son. The king of Simhakalpa, Simhakesari
ordered Simhala to accept her as his wife. Simhala told the king who she was
and requested him to expel her. But the king was attracted by her beauty and
kept her in the palace. During diner the rakshasi mixed sleeping doses everyone
including the king felt asleep. She then invited her rakshasi friends to come
and join in the feast. She told them that they should stop claim over Simhala
instead of giving them one; she was giving them so may. The rakshasis entered
the palace and started killing the king and his family. In the morning people
saw vulture’s rooming around the place. Simhala entered the palace
climbing through a adder. Then he searched the entire palace but
could not find none of the royal family members as all were killed by the
rakshasi. The ministers and the people decided to offer the crown to Simhala.
The crown was then offered to Simhala who accepted it on the condition that the
people would obey him without question. On assuming the throne, he raised a
powerful army and invaded Tamradvipa. When king Simhala with his army marched
upon Tamradvipa, the rakshasis surrendered to him and agreed to leave the island.
The island was then colonized by Simhala and was called Simhaladvipa after him.
A
garland of Gold to you the Listener
A
garland of flowers to you the story teller
Now may
these stories go to the heaven?
And
when it is time to retell them
Comeback
immediately again!
The
traditional way of the closing of the telling. story
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